The cities of Hierapolis, Laodicea, and Colosse–all of which are referenced in Colossians 4:13–were located within about 12 miles (19 km) of each other along the Lycus River in the region of Phrygia. Two main Roman roads heading east joined at Laodicea and continued on to Apamea and Iconium. Though Paul almost certainly passed through this area on his way to Ephesus during his third missionary journey (Acts 18:23; 19:1; see map), apparently he never personally met the believers there (2:1). Instead Paul’s coworker Epaphras, a native of Colosse, first brought the gospel to the Colossians and perhaps to the people of Laodicea and Hierapolis as well (Colossians 1:6-7; 4:12). Even so, Paul appears to have held the same degree of concern for these believers as he did for believers of the churches he personally founded. Paul urged the Colossian believers to make sure that his letter to them is read to the believers at Laodicea and also that his letter to the Laodiceans is read to the Colossians. The letter to the Laodiceans may be what we now regard as the letter to the Ephesians (4:16). Laodicea is also one of the churches addressed by the apostle John in Revelation (3:14-22), where John rebukes them for being lukewarm instead of hot or cold. This imagery is likely drawn from Laodicea’s lukewarm water sources, which were a result of the city being located too far from Hierapolis’s renowned hot springs and also too far from Colosse’s cold springs. John also references several other characteristic traits of Laodicea, such as their wealth, their eye ointment, and their cloth, which was made from their distinctive black wool. Philadelphia, another city addressed by John in Revelation (3:7-13), was located about fifty miles northwest of the Lycus Valley cities.
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Galilee throughout Bible Times
Throughout Bible times, nature and history combined to make the region of Galilee in northern Israel a land of great diversity. Galilee’s mountainous terrain is covered with lush vegetation made possible by the region’s abundant rainfall. Upper Galilee, which was occupied by the tribe of Naphtali, is home to the highest mountains in Israel west of the Jordan River. Further south the terrain gives way to the smaller foothills of Lower Galilee, which was occupied by the tribe of Zebulun. Yet Galilee’s rich diversity was also found in the character of its population, which was shaped by centuries of tumultuous history. Galilee is often characterized as a rural “backwater” region of Bible times, perhaps because of its remoteness from Jerusalem and the apparent disdain some Jews exhibited toward its residents during New Testament times (e.g., John 1:46). But this oversimplification fails to consider Galilee’s promixity to the Great Trunk Road–an international highway connecting Mesopotamia and Anatolia with Egypt–and to the city of Tyre–one of the most internationally connected cities in the ancient Near East during the entire Old Testament period (see Ezekiel 27). Also, over time portions of Galilee were occupied by Aram and then by Assyria due to bribes paid by Judean kings (1 Kings 15:16-22; 2 Kings 16-17; 2 Chronicles 28; Isaiah 7-8), and this led to the population becoming increasingly multi-ethnic–so much so that the prophet Isaiah referred to the region as “Galilee of the nations,” whose people had been humbled and were living in gloom and distress (9:1). Even after the Maccabees reclaimed Galilee for Israel around 104 B.C., its population remained somewhat multi-ethnic throughout the New Testament, and its residents were typically more familiar with Greek than those living in other parts of Judea. Yet by the time Jesus’ family settled in Nazareth the region was also home to a significant population of devout Jews. And it was in this complex amalgam of rural and cosmopolitan, Jewish and Gentile, that Jesus of Nazareth grew up and conducted much of his ministry.
Illyricum
Though the book of Acts undoubtedly provides an accurate account of the apostle Paul’s journeys, a careful study of Paul’s letters suggests that Acts must not be an exhaustive account. This can be seen most clearly in Paul’s mention in Romans 15:19 of preaching the gospel “from Jerusalem all the way around to Illyricum.” Paul’s letter to the Romans was likely written at Corinth during his third missionary journey, yet Illyricum is never explicitly mentioned in Acts as one of Paul’s destinations up to that point. Acts 20:2 does, however, mention that on his way to Corinth Paul traveled “through that area,” referring to Macedonia, which borders the southern portion of Illyricum. Perhaps Luke intentionally used this vague phrase to indicate that Paul actually traveled throughout Macedonia instead of simply passing through it. The Egnatian Way would have provided efficient travel to the western coast of Macedonia, and from there Paul could have easily visited southern Illyricum. Alternatively, Paul may have organized a trip to Illyricum by ship during his three month stay in Corinth just before he wrote his letter to the Romans. Later, in Paul’s second letter to Timothy (4:10), he also mentions that Titus has gone to Dalmatia (in southern Illyricum), perhaps confirming that Paul had already established contacts there during an earlier visit.
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Lands beyond Persia
Though the lands beyond Persia are explicitly mentioned only a few times in the Bible (Esther 1:1; 8:9; Acts 2:9), these lands affected–and were affected by–biblical events in significant ways. The book of Esther notes that the domain of the Persian Empire stretched from India (its eastern border) to Cush (its western border; not shown here) during the reign of King Xerxes (around 460 B.C.). At that time the term India referred to the area surrounding the Indus River, which had given rise to a civilization that flourished many centuries earlier but that had declined significantly by Xerxes’ time. The other lands of this region (e.g., Bactria, Arachosia, and Gedrosia) were likewise very old, but the nations further west (e.g., Assyria, Babylonia, and Egypt) did not have significant involvement with them until the Persian Empire subjugated all of these lands by about 525 B.C. Alexander the Great in turn seized all of these lands from Persia, and his successors the Seleucids continued to rule them. Eventually the lands shown here came under the rule of the newly established Parthian Empire, which lasted throughout the time of the New Testament. Acts 2:9 notes that Jews from Parthia were present at the Temple in Jerusalem when Peter preached his famous sermon at Pentecost. The Silk Road, which passed through the Parthian Empire, had also become a significant trading corridor by this time, linking China and its goods with the lands of the Parthians and the Romans. There is also a very strong tradition among many Christians in modern India (located southeast of the Indus River) that the apostle Thomas eventually traveled deep into the Indian subcontinent to spread the good news of Jesus Christ.
Mount Sinai (Jebel Musa)
Exodus 19-40; Leviticus 1-27
Perhaps no other topic in Bible geography has generated more debate over the centuries than the exact location of Mount Sinai, where the Lord gave Moses the law and the Ten Commandments. At least a dozen locations have been offered, including a location beyond the Sinai peninsula in Arabia. One of the oldest traditions regarding Mount Sinai’s location places it at Jebel Musa (meaning “the mountain of Moses”) in the southern Sinai peninsula (see also “Egypt”). Around A.D. 560 Saint Catherine’s Monastery was built at the foot of Jebel Musa to commemorate the giving of the law on Mount Sinai, and its library has produced some of the oldest biblical manuscripts in the world.
