[Author’s Note: The final leg of the Israelites’ journey from Kadesh-barnea to Mount Pisgah (see “The Journey to Abel-Shittim” map) is recounted in four separate passages of Scripture (Numbers 21:12-26; 33:45-47; Deuteronomy 2:24-37; Judges 11:18-22), but various aspects of the accounts can seem difficult to reconcile with each other. This map proposes a possible itinerary that I believe harmonizes well with all the accounts. Nevertheless, I openly acknowledge that other itineraries may harmonize with the accounts as well, and I encourage all readers to study the passages and geography carefully for themselves to determine what seems to be the best explanation.]
Numbers 21:12-26; 33:45-47; Deuteronomy 2:24-37; Judges 11:18-22
After passing along the eastern border of Moab’s territory, the Israelites camped in the wilderness of Kedemoth and sent messengers to King Sihon in Heshbon, asking permission to pass through his land. Sihon refused permission and instead mobilized his forces at Jahaz to attack the Israelites. It may be that during this time the main camp of the Israelites remained in the wilderness of Kedemoth while the fighting men confronted Sihon at or near Jahaz, because Numbers 33 notes that the Israelites eventually traveled to Dibon, and it seems unlikely that all the Israelites would have traveled south again to Dibon before traveling north to Almon-diblathaim (likely the same as Beth-diblathaim) and the mountains of Abarim. The unknown locations of Beer, Mattanah, and Nahaliel (“river of God”), noted in Numbers 21 as waypoints on the Israelites’ journey, were likely also situated somewhere along this route. At Jahaz the Israelites completely destroyed Sihon and his forces, but it is unclear when they took control of all his land, which stretched from the Arnon River in the south to the Jabbok River in the north. Given the large amount of land they took from him, it seems likely this took place over a long stretch of time, perhaps beginning immediately after their victory at Jahaz (including the capture of Aroer and the “Town in the Gorge”) and continuing well after their arrival at Mount Pisgah. Nearly all the accounts, however, specially note that the Israelites did not encroach on the territory of the Ammonites, who occupied the land along the upper Jabbok River at this time. Additionally, it is interesting to note that Numbers 32:34 includes the southern towns of Dibon (also called Dibon-gad in Numbers 33:46), Ataroth, and Aroer among the towns built (or rebuilt) by the tribe of Gad, but elsewhere in Scripture these towns are included in the territory allotted to Reuben. Perhaps the reason for this may be that Gad was the tribe that first captured this region during the initial conquest of Sihon’s land, but later Gad was formally allotted the northern portion of Sihon’s former territory, and these towns were given to Reuben.
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Bible Mapper Atlas, Volume 1 (Old Testament), is available!
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The Domains of the Early Diadochi, circa 301 B.C.
After Alexander the Great died in 323 B.C., at least seven different early successors (Greek Diodachi) fought to gain control over various parts of his empire. The largest and most powerful domains were established by the Ptolemaic rulers, who controlled Egypt, Cyprus, and the Tarsus region, and the Seleucid rulers, who controlled most of Alexander’s former empire in Asia. The boundaries of each ruler’s domain changed frequently, and initially the land of Israel came under the rule of the Ptolemies, but the Seleucid rulers repeatedly fought to seize it from them. Several chapters of the book of Daniel likely allude to events and struggles surrounding these tumultuous times.
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Economy of Israel and the Ancient Near East
The economy of the ancient Near East, including the land of Israel, ranged from wheat farming and sheep herding to textile production and mineral mining. The land of Israel, though relatively small compared to the great civilizations of Egypt, the Hittites, and Mesopotamia, was particularly diverse in its many industries. This stemmed partially from its rapidly changing elevation and rainfall. Though many of the resources produced were for local consumption, it is clear from archaeology and the earliest stories of Scripture that international trade also played an important role throughout biblical history. The book of Genesis recounts that the patriarch Joseph was sold to Ishmaelite traders traveling from Gilead to Egypt with a load of balm and aromatic resin (Genesis 37:18-36; see “Joseph Is Sold into Slavery” map). Later Joseph rose to power in Egypt, and his own brothers repeatedly traveled from Canaan to Egypt to buy grain during a great famine (Genesis 41-42). During the reign of Saul, the Philistines made strategic use of their exclusive knowledge of iron blacksmithing by restricting any blacksmiths to ply their trade among the Israelites, because they feared they might produce weapons for them (1 Samuel 13:19–22). King Solomon appointed administrative governors to oversee the monthly collection of provisions for the royal court (1 Kings; see “Solomon’s Administrative Districts” map), and he made extensive international trade agreements, buying cedar and cypress timber from the king of Tyre to build the temple and paying him in wheat and olive oil (1 Kings 5:1-12; 2 Chronicles 2). Solomon also engaged in international arms dealing by importing horses from Kue (likely Cilicia) and chariots from Egypt and selling them to the kings of the Hittites and Arameans (1 Kings 10:28–29). His merchant ships traveled as far as Tarshish (likely modern Sardinia or Spain) and Ophir (likely near the southern end of the Red Sea) and returned every three years with precious and exotic goods (1 Kings 10; 2 Chronicles 8-9). His wisdom and riches gained him such international fame that the queen of Sheba in modern day Yemen traveled a thousand miles (1600 km) to visit him (1 Kings 10:1–13; see “Solomon’s International Presence” map). No doubt her intent was also to ensure that the trade routes from Sheba to the Mediterranean ports in southwestern Israel remained unobstructed so that the sale of aromatic resin and precious stones could continue. The Phoenicians of Sidon and Tyre likewise traded extensively throughout the entire Mediterranean world, establishing colonies in places as far away as Tunisia and Spain. During the time of the Judahite exile to Babylon, however, Ezekiel prophesied that the great wealth that the city of Tyre had gained from its worldwide economic trade would one day be swept away (Ezekiel 27; see “Tyre’s International Trade” map). By the time the Romans ruled the land of Israel, the historian Josephus and others note that the olive oil of Galilee had become famous throughout the world for its quality (The Jewish War, Book 2, Chapter 21). Likewise, glass made from the sands just south of Ptolemais (ancient Acco) is mentioned by both Tacitus (The Histories, 5.7) and Pliny the Elder (Natural History, 5.19; see “Poster Map of the Tribe of Zebulun and Its Surroundings, circa 1200 B.C.” map). By this time the Romans had even established trade connections with the land of China by means of the Silk Road (see “Lands beyond Persia” map).
Audio-Visual Reading of 1 Chronicles 5
1 Chronicles 5
The land immediately east of the Jordan River and the northern basin of the Dead Sea, often referred to today as the Transjordan, was conquered by the Israelites as they were preparing to enter the Promised Land (Numbers 21:21-35; 32:1-42; Deuteronomy 2:24-37; Judges 11:19-22). Later, during the time of Saul, these tribes also captured territory from three Hagrite tribes further east in the wilderness. It is possible that the Hagrite tribe of Nodab mentioned in 1 Chronicles 5:19 is the same as the tribe of Kedemah mentioned in Genesis 21:1-21; 25:1-18 (see “Nomadic Range of Ishmael’s Descendants” map). See “Poster Map of the Tribes of Reuben, Gad, and Manasseh (East)” for a detailed map of the territory of these eastern Israelite tribes.