Though the conquests of Alexander the Great are barely mentioned in the Old Testament and never mentioned in the New Testament, the eventual impact of his accomplishments upon the world of the New Testament can hardly be overstated. Alexander was born in 356 B.C. in Macedonia, a region in northern Greece that had formerly been subjugated by the Persians from 512 B.C. to 479 B.C. In 336 B.C. at the age of 20 Alexander assumed the throne of Macedonia from his father Philip II, and he immediately united all of Greece under his rule and launched a 10 year campaign with his army to overthrow the entire Persian Empire–a feat he accomplished without losing a single battle to the Persians. Technically speaking, Alexander lived between the Old and New Testament eras, but the prophet Daniel had foretold of Alexander’s actions in chapters 8 and 11 of his book. During his conquests, Alexander passed through Palestine on his way to Egypt, and the cities of Tyre and Gaza made futile attempts to stop him, thereby suffering devastating consequences for their resistance. The high priest of Judea, however, openly submitted to Alexander’s rule and spared the nation from destruction at his hands. Alexander continued his victorious campaign eastward through Babylon, Persepolis, Ecbatana, and Kabul, eventually bringing virtually the entire Persian domain under his rule. After reaching what was called India by the Greeks, Alexander’s army refused to continue pushing eastward, so Alexander was forced to begin the long journey home to Macedonia with his army. Along the way, however, Alexander died in the palace of Nebuchadnezzar II in Babylon in 323 B.C., and his empire was eventually divided among his generals. The impact of Alexander’s actions, however, lived far beyond his death. Besides founding or renaming over 20 cities with the name Alexandria (those most famous being the one in Egypt), Alexander united the entire eastern world under a common language, a simplified form of Greek called Koine. Eventually this led to a new translation of the Old Testament in Koine Greek (the Septuagint), and the New Testament was written in Koine Greek as well, because by that time it had become the most widely spoken language throughout the eastern half of the Roman Empire. Over the following centuries, many of these eastern peoples also adopted Greek values and beliefs in a process commonly called Hellenization (from Hellas, the ancient name of Greece). Many Jews in Palestine and throughout the eastern world were among those who adopted Hellenistic lifestyles and beliefs as well, often mixing them together with more traditional beliefs and practices of Judaism. Over time tensions in Palestine increased between traditional Jews and Hellenistic Jews, eventually erupting into open conflict under the leadership of Mattathias Maccabeus and his sons.
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Mount Tabor and Its Surrounding Tribal Boundaries
Among the gentle foothills of Lower Galilee stands the distinctly recognizable peak called Mount Tabor, which many scholars believe was a common cultic center for the surrounding tribes during the time of the Old Testament (see Deuteronomy 33:18-19). As such, Tabor does not appear to have been included within any of the tribes’ allotted territory (see Joshua 19), although three of the tribes bordered it. Tabor was also the location where Deborah and Barak attacked the forces of Sisera and King Jabin of Hazor (Judges 4-5) and where Gideon’s brothers were later slaughtered by the Midianites (Judges 8:18-19). Later, it seems that the cultic activities at Tabor must have devolved into pagan idolatry, leading the prophet Hosea to denounce the worship practices there (Hosea 5:1). Yet despite the clear significance that Mount Tabor held throughout the Old Testament, the location of various sites surrounding it have become obscured over time. When Deborah sent for Barak, he was living in Kedesh-naphtali (Judges 4:6), which some have sought to locate at Khirbet Qedesh a few miles southeast of Khirbet ad-Damiya (Adami-nekeb) or even at Tell Kedesh much further north. But a more convincing argument can be made that Kedesh-naphtali (meaning “holy place of Naphtali”) should be located at Khirbet Kashtah just north of Mount Tabor (see further discussion here). An equally obscured location in this region is Japhia, which is mentioned only once in the Bible as part of the boundary descriptions of Zebulun (Joshua 19:12). Many scholars identify Japhia with modern Yafa, which was no doubt the Japha of Josephus’s activities during the First Jewish Revolt against Rome (Life of Flavius Josephus 45; Jewish War II. xx. 6). But the identification of Yafa with Japhia is virtually impossible to reconcile with other more certain locations given in the description of Zebulun’s boundary, such as Sarid and Daberath. But this author has found a possible a solution to this confusing dilemma in the Onomasticon, where Eusebius notes that Japhia was located on the east side of Zebulun and that it was called the “Ascent of Iafo” in his time. Eusebius’s comments and Joshua’s boundary descriptions make it very unlikely that Japhia should be identified with Yafa, which is not located on the east side of Zebulun. But how then did Eusebius’s “Ascent of Iafo” and Josephus’s “Japha” (at modern Yafa) both come to bear some form of the name Japhia? The answer may be that Japhia originally referred not to a town but to the general area now called the Nazareth Ridge. Furthermore, the eastern boundary of Zebulun as it is described in Joshua 19:12-13 makes better sense if it was following what was likely Eusebius’s “Ascent of Iafo [Japhia],” shown on this map. This also coalesces very well with more literal translations of verse 13, which describe the boundary as passing “along on the east toward the sunrise to Gath-hepher” (RSV). That is, this verse is saying that the eastern border of Zebulun passed to Gath-hepher, or perhaps that the border passed to the east of Gath-hepher, or both.
Coastal Lands of the Black Sea
Because the coastal lands of the Black Sea are mentioned infrequently and mostly indirectly in the Bible, they are often overlooked as significant contributors to the context of biblical events and passages, but careful study of Scripture reveals that the biblical writers were very aware of these people groups throughout the entire span of ancient history. The earliest mention of peoples from these lands is likely the references to Gomer and Ashkenaz in what is often called the Table of Nations in Genesis 10. Gomer probably refers to a people more widely known as the Cimmerians, and Ashkenaz probably refers to a people known otherwise as the Scythians. Until the later Old Testament, these two peoples lived primarily north of the Black Sea and the Caucasus Mountains, and they were distantly related to each other. They were both equestrian and nomadic, and they left no written histories of themselves, though some of their culture and practices have been described by the Assyrians, the Greeks (including Herodotus), and the Romans. By the eight century B.C., large portions of these peoples had pushed south across the Caucasus Mountains and into Ararat and the region of the Halys River. Around the same time, Greek colonies began to spring up along the coasts of the Black Sea (many of which are shown here), and over the next few centuries the Scythians and the Cimmerians north of the Black Sea became increasingly hellenized. Nevertheless, ancient authors often continued to regard them as a savages, as can be seen in 2 Maccabees 4:47; 3 Maccabees 7:5; and 4 Maccabees 10:7. This stereotype is likely what Paul was seeking to renounce within the church when he noted in Colossians 3:11 that in Christ “there is no Gentile or Jew, circumcised or uncircumcised, barbarian, Scythian, slave or free.” Similarly, the land of Colchis, though it is not mentioned in the Bible, was renowned in ancient times as an exotic land of immense riches and gold. The land of Pontus along the southern shore of the Black Sea was noted as one of the places from which Jews had come when Peter delivered his powerful sermon during the festival of Pentecost in Jerusalem (Acts 2:9). Pontus was likewise listed among the addressees of Peter’s first letter (1 Peter 1:1), and it was the homeland of Aquila, a coworker of Paul (Acts 18:2). The region of Bithynia, immediately west of Pontus, was noted as one of the addressees of Peter’s first letter as well, and Paul tried to enter this region during his second missionary journey, but the Spirit of Jesus prevented him from doing so (Acts 16:7).
The City of Corinth and Its Surroundings
The prosperous city of Corinth was strategically located at one end of a narrow isthmus joining southern Greece with the Greek mainland. Its position gave it command over both maritime travel and land travel in the region, for virtually all land traffic moving between southern Greece and the mainland had to pass through the city, and ships traveling between Italy and Asia often chose to have their boats dragged across the isthmus along a track called the diolkos to avoid having to make the dangerous journey around southern Greece. The city enjoyed a long and prestigious history that can be divided into two parts at the year 146 B.C., when it was completely destroyed by the Romans. After this the city lay in ruins for about a hundred years until Julius Caesar refounded the city and repopulated it with Roman freedmen and Greeks. A large number of Jews resettled there as well. Thus, when Paul first visited the city during his second missionary journey after speaking at Athens (Acts 18), he immediately found an audience with some of those attending the synagogue there. Paul also met Priscilla and Aquila there, who were Jewish tentmakers like himself. Around the time Paul left Corinth for Syria, a man named Apollos moved to Corinth from Ephesus and became an influential leader in the church. Paul eventually returned to Corinth for a few months during his third missionary journey after he was forced to leave Ephesus because of a riot by the silversmiths (Acts 20:1-4). Paul wrote at least two letters to the Corinthians, and the moral challenges the believers faced there attest to the very pagan culture of the city of Corinth (1 Corinthians 5;1-13; 6:12-20; 8:1-13; 10:14-22; 2 Corinthians 6:14-18). During the days before the city was destroyed by the Romans, the city had gained such a reputation for debauchery that the term “to corinthianize” meant to engage in sexual immorality, but it is not clear if this reputation continued after the city had been rebuilt. Corinth itself was not a port city, so the nearby towns of Lechaion and Cenchrea served these purposes for travel and commerce in the region. Luke explicitly notes that during his second missionary journey Paul had his hair cut off at Cenchrea in fulfillment of a vow he had taken, and then he left for Syria (Acts 18:18). In his letter to the Romans, which was likely written from Corinth during his third missionary journey, Paul also mentions the church in Cenchrea (Romans 16:1).
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Saul Searches for His Father’s Donkeys
1 Samuel 9-10
Despite the generous supply of geographical references surrounding the story of Saul searching for his father’s donkeys, the narrative has led to much confusion regarding exactly where Saul went. Most of the locations mentioned in the story, including Shalishah, Shaalim, Zuph, Zelzah, and Gibeah-elohim, have had multiple suggestions offered as the places intended. A careful study of the context of the story and other passages of Scripture, however, offers some helpful clues regarding what was likely the path taken by Saul. The story, which demonstrates God’s selection of Saul as king, opens with Saul’s father Kish sending Saul from their home in Gibeah to look for some lost donkeys. The first place Saul passes through is the hill country of Ephraim, suggesting that he headed northwest, since heading northeast would have required him to pass through a significant portion of Benjamin first, but this is not mentioned. It also notes that he passed through Shalishah, which must have been near the Gilgal of Elisha’s time (see 2 Kings 4:42 and the surrounding passage). Then Saul passes through Shaalim (meaning “foxes”), which must be identical with the land of Shual (meaning “fox”) near Ophrah (1 Samuel 13:17). Then he reaches the area of Zuph, which may have been near Bethel and Ramah, and Samuel is visiting a town nearby. Saul meets Samuel there, and Samuel anoints Saul to be Israel’s king. To confirm to Saul that he is indeed chosen by God to be Israel’s king, Samuel tells Saul that he will encounter two men near Rachel’s tomb at Zelzah on the border of Benjamin, and they will tell him that Saul’s donkeys have been found. This author has identified Khirbet al-‘Ashi as a good candidate for Zelzah. This site is appropriately located along the border of Benjamin, and it is likely the same location as the town of Elasa in 1 Maccabees 9:5. This author has concluded that the initial tsadee (“Z”) is likely a corruption of an original ayin (which is very similarly shaped), and this letter is often omitted when transliterated to Greek. This is also supported by the complete absence of the word Zelzah in the Septuagint. The actual name of the town, then, may have been Elzah or Elezah. Then near the great tree at Tabor (an uncertain location) Saul will encounter three men on their way to Bethel who will offer him food. After this Saul will go to Gibeah-elohim, which is probably best understood as the High Place of Gibeah at an-Nebi Samwil, shown here, and not as the Gibeah where Saul lived, because later it is noted that the Philistines had an outpost at Gibeah-elohim (1 Samuel 10:5), and this would almost certainly not have been Saul’s hometown. Samuel then says that at Gibeah-elohim Saul will be enabled by the Spirit of God to prophesy. Then Saul is to go “down” to Gilgal (likely the one near the Jordan River) and wait for Samuel there. Saul then leaves Samuel, and all these things happen just as Samuel has foretold. After Saul prophesies at the High Place of Gibeah, Samuel assembles all the Israelites at Mizpah, and there they select the new king by lot, which singles out Saul as the new king. Then Saul returns to his home in Gibeah.
