Isaiah 36-37; 2 Kings 18-19; 2 Chronicles 32
The harrowing experience of the attack on Judah by King Sennacherib of Assyria during Hezekiah’s reign is recorded by three different writers of Scripture and even by Sennacherib himself. Many scholars also suspect that this event formed the basis for Herodotus’s story regarding an army of mice eating the bow strings of the Assyrian army during their campaign against the Egyptians (Histories, 2.141). The origins of this event stretch back into the reign of Hezekiah’s father Ahaz, who enticed the Assyrians to attack Israel and Aram in exchange for making Judah a vassal of Assyria (2 Kings 16-17; 2 Chronicles 28; Isaiah 7-8; also see “The Final Days of the Northern Kingdom of Israel” map). Judah continued to be a vassal of Assyria through the early part of Hezekiah’s reign, but Hezekiah also quietly made extensive preparations to throw off the yoke of Assyria one day (2 Kings 18:1-12; 1 Chronicles 4:39-43; 2 Chronicles 29-31; also see “Hezekiah Strengthens Judah” map). Hezekiah also appears to have been hoping for support from Babylon and Egypt regarding his efforts to revolt against Assyria’s rule, but the prophet Isaiah warned Judah against placing their hopes in these foreign powers (Isaiah 30:1-5; 31:1-3; 39:1-8; 40:10-15; 2 Kings 20:12-19). After a few years spent quashing rebellion among the Babylonians, the Kassites, and the Medes in the east, Sennacherib turned his sights westward and began a campaign to subdue the various vassal nations that were refusing to submit to Assyria’s rule any longer. He first reconquered the Phoenician cities of Sidon and Tyre and then moved south to Philistia. He subdued Joppa, Beth-dagon, Bene-berak, and Azor and then moved to capture the cities of the Shephelah, which guarded the entrances to the valleys leading into the central hill country of Judah. While Sennacherib was attacking Lachish he sent his officers to demand Hezekiah’s surrender. This may be the Assyrian advance upon Jerusalem from the north described in Isaiah 10:28-32, but this is not certain (see “Assyria Advances on Jerusalem” map). Hezekiah sent officers back to Sennacherib with gold and silver taken from Temple and the royal treasury, but he would not surrender. The officers then traveled to Libnah to meet with Sennacherib, for he gone to fight there by that time. In the meantime King Tirhakah of Cush, who was ruling over Egypt at this time, came to attack Sennacherib, so Sennacherib sent his officials back to Hezekiah with a message that Jerusalem would be taken if he resisted. Hezekiah laid the letter from the officials before the Lord and prayed, and the Lord sent word through the prophet Isaiah that Jerusalem would not be taken. Then that very night the angel of the Lord killed 185,000 Assyrian soldiers (probably those with Sennacherib fighting the Egyptians), and Sennacherib went back to Assyria. There while he was worshiping in the temple of Nisroch, Sennacherib’s sons killed him and fled to Ararat (see “Ararat” map).
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Jacob Travels to Southern Canaan
Genesis 32-36
As with many of the stories of the Bible, the events of Jacob’s life are often misunderstood by readers as disjointed pericopes arranged primarily for theological and cultural purposes. Because of this, readers often fail to see that these stories follow a clear geographical progression of the patriarch throughout the land of Canaan. This realistic and coherent geographical framework behind the stories gives strong support to the belief that these stories are authentic, historical accounts of the experiences of Jacob and his ancestors. The overall framework for virtually all of Jacob’s stories is very simple: Jacob is born and raised in southern Canaan but comes into conflict with his twin brother Esau, so he flees to Paddan-aram in Mesopotamia (Genesis 25-28; see “Jacob Goes to Paddan-Aram” map). There he builds a large family and great wealth (Genesis 29-30) and eventually returns to southern Canaan, likely retracing the exact steps he followed when he fled (Genesis 31-35; see also “Jacob Returns to Canaan” map). During this time, Esau moves to the hill country of Seir, likely just south of southern Canaan (“Edom and the Land of Seir” map), and establishes his own family there, giving rise to the nation of Edom (Genesis 36). Though the primary intent of Jacob’s return was no doubt to resettle in Canaan, comments made during his reunion with Esau near Peniel may reveal that he also intended to travel even further to Seir to visit his brother there (Genesis 33:12-14). After crossing from Mahanaim to Peniel in Gilead, Jacob reunites with Esau and settles in Succoth for a time and builds a house for himself and booths for his cattle. He eventually crosses the Jordan River and enters Canaan, stopping first at the ancient city of Shechem. There Jacob’s daughter Dinah is defiled by the son of the region’s leader, and her brothers take revenge by killing all the men of the city. Thus, Jacob is forced to leave, but first he calls upon all his household to purify themselves. He collects their idols and rings and buries them beneath a tree in Shechem. Upon reaching Bethel, Jacob builds an altar and calls it El-bethel. The nurse of Jacob’s mother Rebekah also dies at Bethel and is buried under an oak below the town, leading them to call the place Allon-bacuth (“oak of weeping”). Jacob and his family leave for Bethlehem, but very soon after they start the journey Rachel gives birth to Benjamin and then dies. Jacob buries her along the way, apparently near a place called Zelzah (or perhaps Elzah; see 1 Samuel 10 and “Saul Searches for His Donkeys” map). Jacob continues on and camps beyond the tower of Eder, perhaps near Bethlehem, since that seems to have been his original destination. Finally Jacob reaches Mamre and Hebron. Soon after this Isaac dies, and Esau and Jacob bury him. The story of Jacob’s journey ends at Genesis 35, and we are not explicitly told if Jacob traveled even further to Seir. Genesis 36, however, catalogs the descendants of Esau, the Edomites, perhaps indicating that Jacob did indeed fulfill the intentions he stated in Genesis 33:12-14.
Sodom and Gomorrah Are Destroyed
Genesis 18-19
Author’s note: This article assumes that Sodom, Gomorrah, and Bela (Zoar) were located at Bab edh-Dhra, Numeira, and Khirbat ash-Sheikh `Isa, respectively. The exact locations of the cities of the plain are widely debated, with the primary dispute centering around whether the cities are to be found in the northern area of the Dead Sea (since Lot headed east from Bethel [Genesis 13]) or the southern area (as the Medeba Map shows). It is beyond the scope of this article to present all the evidence to support a southern location, but many of them are well summarized here: “The Discovery of the Sin Cities of Sodom and Gomorrah.” In addition, Eusebius in his Onomasticon describes the Dead Sea as lying between Jericho and Zoar. This author has also recently found that Eusebius notes that Nebereim (Nimrim; see Isaiah 15:6 and Jeremiah 48:34) is located at a village called Bennamareim (likely the site of Gomorrah on this map), which he also says is north of Zoar. Thus, if Eusebius is correct, Zoar is clearly located in the southern area of the Dead Sea, which fits very well with the location shown on this map. Also, Lot’s relocation to Sodom after moving east to the plain of the Jordan suggests that Sodom was located on the east side of the Dead Sea.
The famous cities of Sodom and Gomorrah are first mentioned in Genesis 10:19 in a description of the territory of the Canaanites. The cities are mentioned again in chapter 13, which notes that while Abraham (then called Abram) was living near Bethel (also called Luz), tension began to grow between Abraham’s herders and the herders working for Abraham’s nephew Lot. To resolve the problem, Abraham suggested that he and Lot permanently part ways, and he offered Lot first choice of where to live. Lot chose to move east to the plain of the Jordan, because the land was well watered, and he eventually settled in the city of Sodom. Genesis 14 then describes how Lot was captured by four Mesopotamian kings as they attacked the cities of the plain, but Abraham rescued Lot. Sometime after this Abraham moved to the oaks of Mamre, near Hebron, and three visitors (one of whom is later called “the Lord,” and the other two “angels”) approached his tent. Abraham invited them to share a meal with him and then later accompanied them for the first part of their journey. Along the way the visitors revealed to Abraham that they were going to Sodom to destroy it for its wickedness. Abraham appealed to the Lord to spare the city if even a few righteous lived there, and the Lord agreed and went his way. The two angels arrived at Sodom in the evening (Genesis 19:1), presumably the same day they left, although perhaps they actually took more than one day to travel to Sodom, because the distance from Mamre to Sodom is over 35 miles (56 km), and Scripture does not specifically note that it was the same day. The events that followed that evening are well known, and in the morning the angels compelled Lot and his family to flee the city before it was destroyed. The angels instructed them to flee to the hills, but Lot convinced them to allow him to take refuge in a small village on the plain and not destroy it. Genesis 19:23 seems to suggest that it took Lot’s family a full day and night to reach Zoar, which fits well with the 16 mile (25 km) distance from Sodom to Zoar. As they were reaching Zoar, the Lord rained down fire and burning sulfur on Sodom, Gomorrah, Admah, and Zeboiim, completely destroying them. As Lot’s family was still fleeing, Lot’s wife looked back and turned into a pillar of salt. That same morning Abraham got up and went to where he had last spoken with the visitors, and when he looked out across the plain he saw columns of smoke rising from the destroyed cities. Later Lot and his daughters moved into the hills and lived in a cave, because they were afraid to remain in Zoar. Fearing they would never marry, Lot’s daughters both got their father drunk and conceived children by him, though he was unaware of it. These children became ancestors of the Moabites and the Ammonites.
Poster Map of Paul’s Travels
Several years after Jesus ascended to heaven, a man named Paul (also called Saul) from Tarsus became a leading persecutor of Jesus’ followers (Acts 8:1-3; Philippians 3:6; 1 Timothy 1:13). He obtained permission from the high priest to arrest Jesus’ followers in Damascus and bring them back to Jerusalem. While he was traveling there, however, the risen Jesus spoke to him, and Paul himself became a believer (Acts 9:3-19). Apparently around this time he also went away into Arabia and then returned to Damascus (Galatians 1:15-18). Paul also began to preach powerfully in the synagogues of Damascus that Jesus was the Messiah (Acts 9:20-22). Later Paul went to Jerusalem and became known to the leaders of the church there. He continued to preach boldly about Jesus in Jerusalem, but fierce opposition eventually led the believers to take Paul to Caesarea and send him back to his hometown of Tarsus. Several years after this, around A.D. 45, a church leader in Antioch named Barnabas brought Paul from Tarsus to minister at the church there. Soon after this the leaders of the church at Antioch sent Paul and Barnabas to spread the gospel about Jesus the Messiah to those living on Barnabas’s home island of Cyprus and also in Galatia. Partway through the journey, Barnabas’s relative John Mark left them and returned to Jerusalem for unknown reasons (Acts 13:13). Though Paul and Barnabas suffered intense persecution in Galatia, they were successful in their ministry there and later returned to Antioch to report these things to the church leaders (Acts 13-14). As word spread that many Gentiles were becoming followers of Jesus, dissension grew regarding whether these Gentile believers were required to follow all the laws of Moses, including circumcision. Paul and Barnabas traveled to Jerusalem and participated in a church council about the matter (Acts 15). Soon after this, around A.D. 49, Paul and another leader named Silas set out on a second journey to strengthen the churches that Paul had helped to establish in Galatia, and then they carried the gospel of Jesus even further to Asia, Macedonia, and Achaia (Acts 15-18). Later, around A.D. 53, Paul set out on a third journey to strengthen the churches once again (Acts 19:1-21:17). Around A.D. 58 Paul arrived in Jerusalem and greeted the church leaders there. Several days later Paul visited the Temple, and a riot broke out by many Jews who believed that Paul was teaching people throughout the world to disregard the law of Moses. The Roman leaders transferred Paul to Caesarea to protect him as he awaited trial, and Paul’s imprisonment there lasted for two years (Acts 21-24). Paul eventually appealed his case to Caesar (Acts 26), so he was placed aboard a ship in order to make his way to Rome. Along the way, however, his ship encountered a fierce storm, and the ship was broken apart off the coast of Malta just south of Sicily and Italy. The entire crew, however, made it safely to the island, where they were treated with hospitality (Acts 27:1-28:10). Three months later, around A.D. 60, they were placed aboard another ship and made their way to Rome, where Paul lived under house arrest for two years, proclaiming the gospel without hindrance (Acts 28:11-31). Though the book of Acts ends there, comments in some of Paul’s letters, as well as church tradition, suggest that Paul was eventually released and traveled to Spain and then to Crete, Ephesus, and Nicopolis on a fourth journey (Romans 15:22-29; 2 Timothy 1:3-17; 4:10-21; Titus 1:5; 3:12). Church tradition also says that Paul was later imprisoned at Mamertine Prison in Rome and martyred during Emperor Nero’s persecutions around A.D. 67.
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Jacob Goes to Paddan-Aram
Genesis 26:23-29:1
While Isaac’s family was at Beersheba, Jacob stole Esau’s birthright, and Esau made plans to kill Jacob once his father had passed away. When Rebekah found out about Esau’s plan, she told Jacob to flee to her family in Paddan-aram (also called Aram-naharaim, meaning “Aram of the two rivers”) and garnered Isaac’s support by telling him that she was concerned that Jacob might marry one of the local Canaanite woman. So Isaac sent Jacob to Paddan-aram to find a wife there, much like Abraham had sent his servant Eleazar to this area to find a wife for Isaac (Genesis 24:10). Jacob left Beersheba and headed for Haran in Paddan-aram, and as night fell he stopped at a town called Luz. There he slept with his head resting on a stone and dreamed of a staircase to heaven with angels ascending and descending it. The Lord also spoke to him and reaffirmed his promise to give Canaan to his descendants. The Lord also promised to bring Jacob back to Canaan from Haran. When Jacob woke from his sleep, he declared the place to be the house of God and renamed it Bethel (meaning, “house of God”). Later Bethel appears to have served as an early location of the Ark of the Covenant in the Promised Land (Judges 20; see “The Ark of the Covenant in the Promised Land” map). From Bethel Jacob continued on to the general area of Haran, likely following the same route in reverse that he followed upon his return journey to Canaan from Haran (Genesis 31-35). Sometime before Jacob returned, however, Esau moved away from Canaan and settled in Seir (Genesis 32:3; 36:1-8; ; see “Edom and the Land of Seir” map).
