To the ancient Israelites, the distant regions of western Europe and Africa would have been regarded as the edge of the world, for beyond the Strait of Gibraltar and the coasts of Spain lay the vast, impassable Atlantic Ocean. Some scholars speculate that Tarshish, mentioned throughout the Old Testament as a far off land (Genesis 10:4; 1 Kings 10:14-25; 22:48; 2 Chronicles 9:21; Psalm 72:10; Isaiah 23; 60:9; 66:19; Jeremiah 10:9; Ezekiel 27; 38:13; Jonah 1:3), may have been located somewhere in these regions, perhaps Tartessos in Spain or one of the large Mediterranean islands. Throughout ancient times the empires of Carthage and Greece competed for the islands and coasts of the western Medterrenaean Sea until the growing Roman Empire seized the entire region by the end of the Punic Wars in 146 B.C. The Romans likewise captured the region of Gaul by about 50 B.C. and firmly established themselves as the uncontested power in the western Mediterranean. During the New Testament, the apostle Paul wrote to the believers in Rome and spoke of his desire to visit them on his way to Spain (Romans 15:23-29). It is not clear from Paul’s later letters if his intentions were ever fulfilled, although church tradition holds that they were.
The Battle at the Valley of Siddim
Genesis 14
The battle at the Valley of Siddim took place before the cities of Sodom and Gomorrah were famously destroyed for their wickedness. At that time these cities, along with Bela (Zoar), Admah, and Zeboiim, had been subject to king Kedorlaomer of Babylonia for twelve years, but in the thirteenth year they rebelled. So Kedorlaomer and three of his allies marched to the region and subdued Ashtaroth, Ham, Kiriathaim, Seir, El-paran (somewhere south of Seir), En-mishpat (Kadesh-barnea), Amalek (whose territory extended into southern Canaan; see Numbers 13:29; 14:25, 43-45; Judges 1:16), and Hazazon-tamar (which was En-gedi; see 2 Chronicles 20:2), and then they advanced to the Valley of Siddim, which was likely the dry southern basin of the Dead Sea. There the forces of Sodom, Gomorrah, Bela, Admah, and Zeboiim met them in battle but were routed. As some of the men of the five cities fled across the valley, they fell into tar pits (or perhaps slime pits), while others escaped into the mountains. The four allied kings then looted Sodom and Gomorrah and captured Lot before returning to Mesopotamia by way of Dan in the far north. One of Lot’s men escaped and reported this news to Abram at Mamre, near the town of Hebron, and Abram quickly mustered 318 trained men from his household to pursue the four kings. He and his allies caught up with them at Dan and attacked, chasing them beyond Damascus and recovering Lot and his possessions along with the other captives. After Abram returned, the priest-king Melchizedek of Salem (probably Jerusalem) pronounced a blessing over Abram and gave his allies a portion of the recovered goods.
Lycia and Pamphylia
Throughout their long history, the mountainous region of Lycia and the fertile plain of Pamphylia repeatedly changed hands among the dominant powers of Anatolia. During the Trojan War, Lycia was allied with the Trojans, and Pamphylia belonged to the Hittite Empire. Later, various Greek powers held sway over Lycia and Pamphylia until Cyrus the Great of Persia subdued the entire region. After Alexander the Great wrested the region from Persia, Lycia and Pamphylia were once again fought over by various powers, including the Ptolemies, the Seleucids, and the Rhodians. As time went on, Pamphylia became a haunt for pirates, but after Lycia and Pamphylia came under Roman control the region enjoyed greater security. It was also during this time that the cities of Lycia formed the Lycian League, the earliest known democratic union of city-states, which was headquartered at Patara. Even after the Romans took control over the region, the Lycian League was allowed to exercise some degree of autonomous rule. During New Testament times, the apostle Paul passed through Perga as he made his way to Antioch of Pisidia and also as he returned. From there he went to Attalia before setting sail for Antioch (Acts 13-14). Near the end of his third missionary journey, Paul changed ships at the port of Patara on his way to Jerusalem (Acts 21:1-2). Later, Paul changed ships at the port of Myra while being transferred to Rome to stand trial before Caesar (Acts 27:5). Myra is also the hometown of St. Nicholas, the fourth-century Christian bishop who became widely associated with gift-giving and Christmas.
The Nation of Moab and the Tribe of Reuben
Throughout the Old Testament, the land immediately east of the Dead Sea was home to the nation of Moab and also to the Israelite tribe of Reuben. The Moabites were distantly related to the Israelites through Abraham’s nephew Lot (Genesis 19; see “Sodom and Gomorrah Are Destroyed” map), and as the Israelites made their way to the Promised Land under Moses’ leadership, they had to pass by Moab’s territory (Numbers 21:10-20; Deuteronomy 2:1-23; see “The Journey to Abel-Shittim” map), but they were not to take anything that belonged to them. After crossing the Arnon River, the Israelites were confronted by King Sihon of the Amorites, but the Israelites defeated him and captured his land (Numbers 21:21-31; Deuteronomy 2:24-36; Judges 11:19-22). Part of this land, which Sihon had actually seized from Moab years earlier (Numbers 21:26), was allotted to the tribe of Reuben for their inheritance. The Ammonites also laid claim to this land, though it is not clear whether they had ever actually controlled it (Judges 11:13). Over the centuries that followed, Israel’s relationship with the Moabites was sometimes peaceful, such as when Naomi and her family moved to Moab to escape famine in Judah (Ruth 1:1; see “The Setting of Ruth” map). David (Naomi’s great-grandson) also placed his parents in the care of the king of Moab while fleeing from Saul (1 Samuel 22:3-4; see “David Flees from Saul (A)” map). Other times, however, the Israelites fought against the Moabites (Judges 3:12-30; 2 Samuel 8:1-2; 2 Kings 3; 1 Chronicles 18:1-2; 2 Chronicles 20), and eventually David subjugated them (2 Samuel 8:1-2). But sometime around 853 B.C., King Mesha of Moab reestablished his nation’s independence and expanded its borders northward to include all the territory of Reuben once again (2 Kings 1:1). This lost territory would remain under the control of various foreign rulers for another 700 years until the time of the Maccabees.
Oases of the Arabian Desert
One of the most overlooked locations of biblical history is the desert region encompassing the oases of Dumah, Tema, Dedan, and Yathrib. While Dumah, Tema, and Dedan are mentioned by name only a few times in the Old Testament and Yathrib is not mentioned at all, the history of these cities often overlaps with biblical history at very significant points. All of these cities existed because of their roles as much needed oases along two very important trade routes through the Arabian Desert. The Incense Route stretched for over a thousand miles through forbidding desert, beginning in Sheba in southern Arabia and terminating at Gaza on the Mediterranean coast, where traders could find ready markets for Sheba’s prized incense and precious stones. Traders from Sheba could also reach the great civilizations of Babylon and Assyria by another route that turned northeast from the Incense Route at Dedan and passed through Tema and Dumah. Over time these critical desert oases grew very wealthy, and foreign rulers did not fail to take notice. Nabonidus, the last king of Babylon, eventually appointed Belshazzar to rule in his stead while he traveled to each of these cities to defeat them. Then for several years Nabonidus ruled over the these cities from Tema (see Jeremiah 49:28). Isaiah, Jeremiah, and Ezekiel mention these desert cities in association with Edom (Isaiah 21; Jeremiah 25:23; 49:8; Ezekiel 25:13), and Tema is also mentioned in Job 6:19. Dedan is said to be among those who traded with Tyre (Ezekiel 27:20). Dumah is prophesied against by Isaiah (Isaiah 21); Tema is prophesied against by Isaiah and Jeremiah (Isaiah 21; Jeremiah 25); and Dedan is prophesied against by Isaiah, Jeremiah, and Ezekiel (Isaiah 21; Jeremiah 25; 49:8; Ezekiel 25:13).
